Monolithic integration of an array of eight polycrystalline Ge pixels with CMOS. Schematic of Ge/Si APD with a typical SACM configuration.
- Optica
- Vol. 6,
- Issue 6,
- pp. 772-777
- (2019)
- •https://doi.org/10.1364/OPTICA.6.000772
- Share
- Get CitationCopy Citation TextXiaoge Zeng, Zhihong Huang, Binhao Wang, Di Liang, Marco Fiorentino, and Raymond G. Beausoleil, 'Silicon–germanium avalanche photodiodes with direct control of electric field in charge multiplication region,' Optica 6, 772-777 (2019)Export Citation
Abstract
A CMOS-compatible avalanche photodiode (APD) with high speed and high sensitivity is a critical component of a low-cost, high-data-rate, and energy-efficient optical communication link. A novel waveguide-coupled silicon–germanium APD detector with three electric terminals was demonstrated with breakdown voltage of , bandwidth of 18.9 GHz, DC photocurrent gain of 15, open-eye diagram at a data rate of 35 Gb/s, and sensitivity of at a data rate of 25 Gb/s. This three-terminal APD allows high-yield fabrication in the standard CMOS process and provides robust high-sensitivity operation under small voltage supply.
© 2019 Optical Society of America under the terms of the OSA Open Access Publishing Agreement
Full Article | PDF ArticleOSA Recommended Articles25 Gbps low-voltage waveguide Si–Ge avalanche photodiodeZhihong Huang, Cheng Li, Di Liang, Kunzhi Yu, Charles Santori, Marco Fiorentino, Wayne Sorin, Samuel Palermo, and Raymond G. Beausoleil
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References
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- C. Sun, M. T. Wade, Y. Lee, J. S. Orcutt, L. Alloatti, M. S. Georgas, A. S. Waterman, J. M. Shainline, R. R. Avizienis, S. Lin, B. R. Moss, R. Kumar, F. Pavanello, A. H. Atabaki, H. M. Cook, A. J. Ou, J. C. Leu, Y.-H. Chen, K. Asanović, R. J. Ram, M. A. Popović, and V. M. Stojanović, “Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light,” Nature 528, 534–538 (2015).
[Crossref] - L. Alloatti and R. J. Ram, “Resonance-enhanced waveguide-coupled silicon-germanium detector,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 108, 071105 (2016).
[Crossref] - Z. Huang, L. Cheng, D. Liang, K. Yu, C. Santori, M. Fiorentino, W. Sorin, S. Palermo, and R. G. Beausoleil, “25 Gbps low-voltage waveguide Si–Ge avalanche photodiode,” Optica 3, 793–797 (2016).
[Crossref] - Z. Su, E. S. Hosseini, E. Timurdogan, J. Sun, M. Moresco, G. Leake, T. N. Adam, D. D. Coolbaugh, and M. R. Watts, “Resonant germanium-on-silicon photodetector with evanescent waveguide coupling,” in Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics (CLEO) (2016), pp. 5–6.
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[Crossref] - L. Virot, P. Crozat, J.-M. Fédéli, J.-M. Hartmann, D. Marris-Morini, E. Cassan, F. Boeuf, and L. Vivien, “Germanium avalanche receiver for low power interconnects,” Nat. Commun. 5, 4957 (2014).
[Crossref] - H. T. Chen, J. Verbist, P. Verheyen, P. De Heyn, G. Lepage, J. De Coster, P. Absil, X. Yin, J. Bauwelinck, J. Van Campenhout, and G. Roelkens, “High sensitivity 10 Gb/s Si photonic receiver based on a low-voltage waveguide-coupled Ge avalanche photodetector,” Opt. Express 23, 815–822 (2015).
[Crossref] - N. J. D. Martinez, C. T. Derose, R. W. Brock, A. L. Starbuck, A. T. Pomerene, A. L. Lentine, D. C. Trotter, and P. S. Davids, “High performance waveguide-coupled Ge-on-Si linear mode avalanche photodiodes,” Opt. Express 24, 19072–19081 (2016).
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- B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, R. Wu, W. V. Sorin, D. Liang, and R. G. Beausoleil, “A compact model for Si-Ge avalanche photodiodes,” in IEEE 15th International Conference on Group IV Photonics (IEEE, 2018), pp. 109–110.
- D. Dai, H. W. Chen, J. E. Bowers, Y. Kang, M. Morse, and M. J. Paniccia, “Equivalent circuit model of a Ge/Si avalanche photodiode,” in IEEE International Conference on Group IV PhotonicsGFP (2009), pp. 13–15.
- B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, W. V. Sorin, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. Beausoleil, “A compact model for si-ge avalanche photodiodes over a wide range of multiplication gain,” J. Lightwave Technol. (to be published).
- D. Dai, M. J. W. Rodwell, J. E. Bowers, Y. Kang, and M. Morse, “Derivation of the small signal response and equivalent circuit model for a separate absorption and multiplication layer avalanche photodetector,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 16, 1328–1336 (2010).
[Crossref] - J. W. Shi, F. M. Kuo, F. C. Hong, and Y. S. Wu, “Dynamic analysis of a Si/SiGe-based impact ionization avalanche transit time photodiode with an ultrahigh gain-bandwidth product,” IEEE Electron Device Lett. 30, 1164–1166 (2009).
[Crossref] - M. M. P. Fard, G. Cowan, and O. L. Ladouceur, “Responsivity optimization of a high-speed germanium-on-silicon photodetector,” Opt. Express 24, 27738–27752 (2016).
[Crossref] - L. Vivien, J. Osmond, J.-M. Fédéli, D. Marris-Morini, P. Crozat, J.-F. Damlencourt, E. Cassan, Y. Lecunff, and S. Laval, “42 GHz p.i.n germanium photodetector integrated in a silicon-on-insulator waveguide,” Opt. Express 17, 6252–6257 (2009).
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2016 (4)
L. Alloatti and R. J. Ram, “Resonance-enhanced waveguide-coupled silicon-germanium detector,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 108, 071105 (2016).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Z. Huang, L. Cheng, D. Liang, K. Yu, C. Santori, M. Fiorentino, W. Sorin, S. Palermo, and R. G. Beausoleil, “25 Gbps low-voltage waveguide Si–Ge avalanche photodiode,” Optica 3, 793–797 (2016).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
N. J. D. Martinez, C. T. Derose, R. W. Brock, A. L. Starbuck, A. T. Pomerene, A. L. Lentine, D. C. Trotter, and P. S. Davids, “High performance waveguide-coupled Ge-on-Si linear mode avalanche photodiodes,” Opt. Express 24, 19072–19081 (2016).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
M. M. P. Fard, G. Cowan, and O. L. Ladouceur, “Responsivity optimization of a high-speed germanium-on-silicon photodetector,” Opt. Express 24, 27738–27752 (2016).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
2015 (2)
H. T. Chen, J. Verbist, P. Verheyen, P. De Heyn, G. Lepage, J. De Coster, P. Absil, X. Yin, J. Bauwelinck, J. Van Campenhout, and G. Roelkens, “High sensitivity 10 Gb/s Si photonic receiver based on a low-voltage waveguide-coupled Ge avalanche photodetector,” Opt. Express 23, 815–822 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
C. Sun, M. T. Wade, Y. Lee, J. S. Orcutt, L. Alloatti, M. S. Georgas, A. S. Waterman, J. M. Shainline, R. R. Avizienis, S. Lin, B. R. Moss, R. Kumar, F. Pavanello, A. H. Atabaki, H. M. Cook, A. J. Ou, J. C. Leu, Y.-H. Chen, K. Asanović, R. J. Ram, M. A. Popović, and V. M. Stojanović, “Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light,” Nature 528, 534–538 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
2014 (1)
L. Virot, P. Crozat, J.-M. Fédéli, J.-M. Hartmann, D. Marris-Morini, E. Cassan, F. Boeuf, and L. Vivien, “Germanium avalanche receiver for low power interconnects,” Nat. Commun. 5, 4957 (2014).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
2010 (2)
S. Assefa, F. Xia, and Y. A. Vlasov, “Reinventing germanium avalanche photodetector for nanophotonic on-chip optical interconnects,” Nature 464, 80–84 (2010).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
D. Dai, M. J. W. Rodwell, J. E. Bowers, Y. Kang, and M. Morse, “Derivation of the small signal response and equivalent circuit model for a separate absorption and multiplication layer avalanche photodetector,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 16, 1328–1336 (2010).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
2009 (3)
J. W. Shi, F. M. Kuo, F. C. Hong, and Y. S. Wu, “Dynamic analysis of a Si/SiGe-based impact ionization avalanche transit time photodiode with an ultrahigh gain-bandwidth product,” IEEE Electron Device Lett. 30, 1164–1166 (2009).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
L. Vivien, J. Osmond, J.-M. Fédéli, D. Marris-Morini, P. Crozat, J.-F. Damlencourt, E. Cassan, Y. Lecunff, and S. Laval, “42 GHz p.i.n germanium photodetector integrated in a silicon-on-insulator waveguide,” Opt. Express 17, 6252–6257 (2009).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Y. Kang, H.-D. Liu, M. Morse, M. J. Paniccia, M. Zadka, S. Litski, G. Sarid, A. Pauchard, Y.-H. Kuo, H.-W. Chen, W. S. Zaoui, J. E. Bowers, A. Beling, D. C. McIntosh, X. Zheng, and J. C. Campbell, “Monolithic germanium/silicon avalanche photodiodes with 340 GHz gain-bandwidth product,” Nat. Photonics 3, 59–63 (2009).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Absil, P.
H. T. Chen, J. Verbist, P. Verheyen, P. De Heyn, G. Lepage, J. De Coster, P. Absil, X. Yin, J. Bauwelinck, J. Van Campenhout, and G. Roelkens, “High sensitivity 10 Gb/s Si photonic receiver based on a low-voltage waveguide-coupled Ge avalanche photodetector,” Opt. Express 23, 815–822 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Adam, T. N.
Z. Su, E. S. Hosseini, E. Timurdogan, J. Sun, M. Moresco, G. Leake, T. N. Adam, D. D. Coolbaugh, and M. R. Watts, “Resonant germanium-on-silicon photodetector with evanescent waveguide coupling,” in Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics (CLEO) (2016), pp. 5–6.
Alloatti, L.
L. Alloatti and R. J. Ram, “Resonance-enhanced waveguide-coupled silicon-germanium detector,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 108, 071105 (2016).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
C. Sun, M. T. Wade, Y. Lee, J. S. Orcutt, L. Alloatti, M. S. Georgas, A. S. Waterman, J. M. Shainline, R. R. Avizienis, S. Lin, B. R. Moss, R. Kumar, F. Pavanello, A. H. Atabaki, H. M. Cook, A. J. Ou, J. C. Leu, Y.-H. Chen, K. Asanović, R. J. Ram, M. A. Popović, and V. M. Stojanović, “Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light,” Nature 528, 534–538 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Asanovic, K.
C. Sun, M. T. Wade, Y. Lee, J. S. Orcutt, L. Alloatti, M. S. Georgas, A. S. Waterman, J. M. Shainline, R. R. Avizienis, S. Lin, B. R. Moss, R. Kumar, F. Pavanello, A. H. Atabaki, H. M. Cook, A. J. Ou, J. C. Leu, Y.-H. Chen, K. Asanović, R. J. Ram, M. A. Popović, and V. M. Stojanović, “Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light,” Nature 528, 534–538 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Assefa, S.
S. Assefa, F. Xia, and Y. A. Vlasov, “Reinventing germanium avalanche photodetector for nanophotonic on-chip optical interconnects,” Nature 464, 80–84 (2010).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Atabaki, A. H.
C. Sun, M. T. Wade, Y. Lee, J. S. Orcutt, L. Alloatti, M. S. Georgas, A. S. Waterman, J. M. Shainline, R. R. Avizienis, S. Lin, B. R. Moss, R. Kumar, F. Pavanello, A. H. Atabaki, H. M. Cook, A. J. Ou, J. C. Leu, Y.-H. Chen, K. Asanović, R. J. Ram, M. A. Popović, and V. M. Stojanović, “Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light,” Nature 528, 534–538 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Avizienis, R. R.
C. Sun, M. T. Wade, Y. Lee, J. S. Orcutt, L. Alloatti, M. S. Georgas, A. S. Waterman, J. M. Shainline, R. R. Avizienis, S. Lin, B. R. Moss, R. Kumar, F. Pavanello, A. H. Atabaki, H. M. Cook, A. J. Ou, J. C. Leu, Y.-H. Chen, K. Asanović, R. J. Ram, M. A. Popović, and V. M. Stojanović, “Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light,” Nature 528, 534–538 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Bauwelinck, J.
H. T. Chen, J. Verbist, P. Verheyen, P. De Heyn, G. Lepage, J. De Coster, P. Absil, X. Yin, J. Bauwelinck, J. Van Campenhout, and G. Roelkens, “High sensitivity 10 Gb/s Si photonic receiver based on a low-voltage waveguide-coupled Ge avalanche photodetector,” Opt. Express 23, 815–822 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Beausoleil, R.
B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, W. V. Sorin, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. Beausoleil, “A compact model for si-ge avalanche photodiodes over a wide range of multiplication gain,” J. Lightwave Technol. (to be published).
Beausoleil, R. G.
Z. Huang, L. Cheng, D. Liang, K. Yu, C. Santori, M. Fiorentino, W. Sorin, S. Palermo, and R. G. Beausoleil, “25 Gbps low-voltage waveguide Si–Ge avalanche photodiode,” Optica 3, 793–797 (2016).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Z. Huang, X. Zeng, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. G. Beausoleil, “Operation and analysis of low-voltage three-terminal avalanche photodiodes,” in 14th International Conference on Group IV Photonics (IEEE, 2017), pp. 179–180.
B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. G. Beausoleil, “35 Gb/s ultralow-voltage three-terminal Si-Ge avalanche photodiode,” in OFC Optical Fiber Communication Conference and Exposition (2019), paper Th3B.2.
X. Zeng, Z. Huang, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. G. Beausoleil, “Low-voltage three-terminal avalanche photodiodes,” in Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics (CLEO) (2017), paper SF2I.3.
B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, R. Wu, W. V. Sorin, D. Liang, and R. G. Beausoleil, “A compact model for Si-Ge avalanche photodiodes,” in IEEE 15th International Conference on Group IV Photonics (IEEE, 2018), pp. 109–110.
Z. Huang, M. Fiorentino, C. Santori, Z. Peng, D. Liang, and R. G. Beausoleil, “Devices including independently controllable absorption region and multiplication region electric fields,” U.S. patent9, 490, 385 B2 (8November2016).
Beling, A.
Y. Kang, H.-D. Liu, M. Morse, M. J. Paniccia, M. Zadka, S. Litski, G. Sarid, A. Pauchard, Y.-H. Kuo, H.-W. Chen, W. S. Zaoui, J. E. Bowers, A. Beling, D. C. McIntosh, X. Zheng, and J. C. Campbell, “Monolithic germanium/silicon avalanche photodiodes with 340 GHz gain-bandwidth product,” Nat. Photonics 3, 59–63 (2009).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Boeuf, F.
L. Virot, P. Crozat, J.-M. Fédéli, J.-M. Hartmann, D. Marris-Morini, E. Cassan, F. Boeuf, and L. Vivien, “Germanium avalanche receiver for low power interconnects,” Nat. Commun. 5, 4957 (2014).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Bowers, J. E.
D. Dai, M. J. W. Rodwell, J. E. Bowers, Y. Kang, and M. Morse, “Derivation of the small signal response and equivalent circuit model for a separate absorption and multiplication layer avalanche photodetector,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 16, 1328–1336 (2010).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Y. Kang, H.-D. Liu, M. Morse, M. J. Paniccia, M. Zadka, S. Litski, G. Sarid, A. Pauchard, Y.-H. Kuo, H.-W. Chen, W. S. Zaoui, J. E. Bowers, A. Beling, D. C. McIntosh, X. Zheng, and J. C. Campbell, “Monolithic germanium/silicon avalanche photodiodes with 340 GHz gain-bandwidth product,” Nat. Photonics 3, 59–63 (2009).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
D. Dai, H. W. Chen, J. E. Bowers, Y. Kang, M. Morse, and M. J. Paniccia, “Equivalent circuit model of a Ge/Si avalanche photodiode,” in IEEE International Conference on Group IV PhotonicsGFP (2009), pp. 13–15.
Brock, B.
M. Ware, K. Rajamani, M. Floyd, B. Brock, J. C. Rubio, F. Rawson, and J. B. Carter, “Architecting for power management: the IBM POWER7 approach,” in International Symposium on High-Performance Computer Architecture (HPCA) (IEEE, 2010), pp. 1–11.
Brock, R. W.
N. J. D. Martinez, C. T. Derose, R. W. Brock, A. L. Starbuck, A. T. Pomerene, A. L. Lentine, D. C. Trotter, and P. S. Davids, “High performance waveguide-coupled Ge-on-Si linear mode avalanche photodiodes,” Opt. Express 24, 19072–19081 (2016).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Campbell, J. C.
Y. Kang, H.-D. Liu, M. Morse, M. J. Paniccia, M. Zadka, S. Litski, G. Sarid, A. Pauchard, Y.-H. Kuo, H.-W. Chen, W. S. Zaoui, J. E. Bowers, A. Beling, D. C. McIntosh, X. Zheng, and J. C. Campbell, “Monolithic germanium/silicon avalanche photodiodes with 340 GHz gain-bandwidth product,” Nat. Photonics 3, 59–63 (2009).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Carter, J. B.
M. Ware, K. Rajamani, M. Floyd, B. Brock, J. C. Rubio, F. Rawson, and J. B. Carter, “Architecting for power management: the IBM POWER7 approach,” in International Symposium on High-Performance Computer Architecture (HPCA) (IEEE, 2010), pp. 1–11.
Cassan, E.
L. Virot, P. Crozat, J.-M. Fédéli, J.-M. Hartmann, D. Marris-Morini, E. Cassan, F. Boeuf, and L. Vivien, “Germanium avalanche receiver for low power interconnects,” Nat. Commun. 5, 4957 (2014).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
L. Vivien, J. Osmond, J.-M. Fédéli, D. Marris-Morini, P. Crozat, J.-F. Damlencourt, E. Cassan, Y. Lecunff, and S. Laval, “42 GHz p.i.n germanium photodetector integrated in a silicon-on-insulator waveguide,” Opt. Express 17, 6252–6257 (2009).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Chen, H. T.
H. T. Chen, J. Verbist, P. Verheyen, P. De Heyn, G. Lepage, J. De Coster, P. Absil, X. Yin, J. Bauwelinck, J. Van Campenhout, and G. Roelkens, “High sensitivity 10 Gb/s Si photonic receiver based on a low-voltage waveguide-coupled Ge avalanche photodetector,” Opt. Express 23, 815–822 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Chen, H. W.
D. Dai, H. W. Chen, J. E. Bowers, Y. Kang, M. Morse, and M. J. Paniccia, “Equivalent circuit model of a Ge/Si avalanche photodiode,” in IEEE International Conference on Group IV PhotonicsGFP (2009), pp. 13–15.
Chen, H.-W.
Y. Kang, H.-D. Liu, M. Morse, M. J. Paniccia, M. Zadka, S. Litski, G. Sarid, A. Pauchard, Y.-H. Kuo, H.-W. Chen, W. S. Zaoui, J. E. Bowers, A. Beling, D. C. McIntosh, X. Zheng, and J. C. Campbell, “Monolithic germanium/silicon avalanche photodiodes with 340 GHz gain-bandwidth product,” Nat. Photonics 3, 59–63 (2009).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Chen, Y.-H.
C. Sun, M. T. Wade, Y. Lee, J. S. Orcutt, L. Alloatti, M. S. Georgas, A. S. Waterman, J. M. Shainline, R. R. Avizienis, S. Lin, B. R. Moss, R. Kumar, F. Pavanello, A. H. Atabaki, H. M. Cook, A. J. Ou, J. C. Leu, Y.-H. Chen, K. Asanović, R. J. Ram, M. A. Popović, and V. M. Stojanović, “Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light,” Nature 528, 534–538 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Cheng, L.
Z. Huang, L. Cheng, D. Liang, K. Yu, C. Santori, M. Fiorentino, W. Sorin, S. Palermo, and R. G. Beausoleil, “25 Gbps low-voltage waveguide Si–Ge avalanche photodiode,” Optica 3, 793–797 (2016).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Cook, H. M.
C. Sun, M. T. Wade, Y. Lee, J. S. Orcutt, L. Alloatti, M. S. Georgas, A. S. Waterman, J. M. Shainline, R. R. Avizienis, S. Lin, B. R. Moss, R. Kumar, F. Pavanello, A. H. Atabaki, H. M. Cook, A. J. Ou, J. C. Leu, Y.-H. Chen, K. Asanović, R. J. Ram, M. A. Popović, and V. M. Stojanović, “Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light,” Nature 528, 534–538 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Coolbaugh, D. D.
Z. Su, E. S. Hosseini, E. Timurdogan, J. Sun, M. Moresco, G. Leake, T. N. Adam, D. D. Coolbaugh, and M. R. Watts, “Resonant germanium-on-silicon photodetector with evanescent waveguide coupling,” in Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics (CLEO) (2016), pp. 5–6.
Cowan, G.
M. M. P. Fard, G. Cowan, and O. L. Ladouceur, “Responsivity optimization of a high-speed germanium-on-silicon photodetector,” Opt. Express 24, 27738–27752 (2016).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Crozat, P.
L. Virot, P. Crozat, J.-M. Fédéli, J.-M. Hartmann, D. Marris-Morini, E. Cassan, F. Boeuf, and L. Vivien, “Germanium avalanche receiver for low power interconnects,” Nat. Commun. 5, 4957 (2014).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
L. Vivien, J. Osmond, J.-M. Fédéli, D. Marris-Morini, P. Crozat, J.-F. Damlencourt, E. Cassan, Y. Lecunff, and S. Laval, “42 GHz p.i.n germanium photodetector integrated in a silicon-on-insulator waveguide,” Opt. Express 17, 6252–6257 (2009).
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L. Vivien, J. Osmond, J.-M. Fédéli, D. Marris-Morini, P. Crozat, J.-F. Damlencourt, E. Cassan, Y. Lecunff, and S. Laval, “42 GHz p.i.n germanium photodetector integrated in a silicon-on-insulator waveguide,” Opt. Express 17, 6252–6257 (2009).
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N. J. D. Martinez, C. T. Derose, R. W. Brock, A. L. Starbuck, A. T. Pomerene, A. L. Lentine, D. C. Trotter, and P. S. Davids, “High performance waveguide-coupled Ge-on-Si linear mode avalanche photodiodes,” Opt. Express 24, 19072–19081 (2016).
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H. T. Chen, J. Verbist, P. Verheyen, P. De Heyn, G. Lepage, J. De Coster, P. Absil, X. Yin, J. Bauwelinck, J. Van Campenhout, and G. Roelkens, “High sensitivity 10 Gb/s Si photonic receiver based on a low-voltage waveguide-coupled Ge avalanche photodetector,” Opt. Express 23, 815–822 (2015).
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N. J. D. Martinez, C. T. Derose, R. W. Brock, A. L. Starbuck, A. T. Pomerene, A. L. Lentine, D. C. Trotter, and P. S. Davids, “High performance waveguide-coupled Ge-on-Si linear mode avalanche photodiodes,” Opt. Express 24, 19072–19081 (2016).
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M. M. P. Fard, G. Cowan, and O. L. Ladouceur, “Responsivity optimization of a high-speed germanium-on-silicon photodetector,” Opt. Express 24, 27738–27752 (2016).
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Fédéli, J.-M.
L. Virot, P. Crozat, J.-M. Fédéli, J.-M. Hartmann, D. Marris-Morini, E. Cassan, F. Boeuf, and L. Vivien, “Germanium avalanche receiver for low power interconnects,” Nat. Commun. 5, 4957 (2014).
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L. Vivien, J. Osmond, J.-M. Fédéli, D. Marris-Morini, P. Crozat, J.-F. Damlencourt, E. Cassan, Y. Lecunff, and S. Laval, “42 GHz p.i.n germanium photodetector integrated in a silicon-on-insulator waveguide,” Opt. Express 17, 6252–6257 (2009).
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Z. Huang, L. Cheng, D. Liang, K. Yu, C. Santori, M. Fiorentino, W. Sorin, S. Palermo, and R. G. Beausoleil, “25 Gbps low-voltage waveguide Si–Ge avalanche photodiode,” Optica 3, 793–797 (2016).
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B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. G. Beausoleil, “35 Gb/s ultralow-voltage three-terminal Si-Ge avalanche photodiode,” in OFC Optical Fiber Communication Conference and Exposition (2019), paper Th3B.2.
X. Zeng, Z. Huang, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. G. Beausoleil, “Low-voltage three-terminal avalanche photodiodes,” in Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics (CLEO) (2017), paper SF2I.3.
B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, W. V. Sorin, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. Beausoleil, “A compact model for si-ge avalanche photodiodes over a wide range of multiplication gain,” J. Lightwave Technol. (to be published).
Z. Huang, M. Fiorentino, C. Santori, Z. Peng, D. Liang, and R. G. Beausoleil, “Devices including independently controllable absorption region and multiplication region electric fields,” U.S. patent9, 490, 385 B2 (8November2016).
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Hartmann, J.-M.
L. Virot, P. Crozat, J.-M. Fédéli, J.-M. Hartmann, D. Marris-Morini, E. Cassan, F. Boeuf, and L. Vivien, “Germanium avalanche receiver for low power interconnects,” Nat. Commun. 5, 4957 (2014).
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Z. Huang, L. Cheng, D. Liang, K. Yu, C. Santori, M. Fiorentino, W. Sorin, S. Palermo, and R. G. Beausoleil, “25 Gbps low-voltage waveguide Si–Ge avalanche photodiode,” Optica 3, 793–797 (2016).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Z. Huang, X. Zeng, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. G. Beausoleil, “Operation and analysis of low-voltage three-terminal avalanche photodiodes,” in 14th International Conference on Group IV Photonics (IEEE, 2017), pp. 179–180.
X. Zeng, Z. Huang, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. G. Beausoleil, “Low-voltage three-terminal avalanche photodiodes,” in Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics (CLEO) (2017), paper SF2I.3.
B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. G. Beausoleil, “35 Gb/s ultralow-voltage three-terminal Si-Ge avalanche photodiode,” in OFC Optical Fiber Communication Conference and Exposition (2019), paper Th3B.2.
B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, R. Wu, W. V. Sorin, D. Liang, and R. G. Beausoleil, “A compact model for Si-Ge avalanche photodiodes,” in IEEE 15th International Conference on Group IV Photonics (IEEE, 2018), pp. 109–110.
B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, W. V. Sorin, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. Beausoleil, “A compact model for si-ge avalanche photodiodes over a wide range of multiplication gain,” J. Lightwave Technol. (to be published).
Z. Huang, M. Fiorentino, C. Santori, Z. Peng, D. Liang, and R. G. Beausoleil, “Devices including independently controllable absorption region and multiplication region electric fields,” U.S. patent9, 490, 385 B2 (8November2016).
Kang, Y.
D. Dai, M. J. W. Rodwell, J. E. Bowers, Y. Kang, and M. Morse, “Derivation of the small signal response and equivalent circuit model for a separate absorption and multiplication layer avalanche photodetector,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 16, 1328–1336 (2010).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
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C. Sun, M. T. Wade, Y. Lee, J. S. Orcutt, L. Alloatti, M. S. Georgas, A. S. Waterman, J. M. Shainline, R. R. Avizienis, S. Lin, B. R. Moss, R. Kumar, F. Pavanello, A. H. Atabaki, H. M. Cook, A. J. Ou, J. C. Leu, Y.-H. Chen, K. Asanović, R. J. Ram, M. A. Popović, and V. M. Stojanović, “Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light,” Nature 528, 534–538 (2015).
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[Crossref]
Kuo, F. M.
J. W. Shi, F. M. Kuo, F. C. Hong, and Y. S. Wu, “Dynamic analysis of a Si/SiGe-based impact ionization avalanche transit time photodiode with an ultrahigh gain-bandwidth product,” IEEE Electron Device Lett. 30, 1164–1166 (2009).
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[Crossref]
Kuo, Y.-H.
Y. Kang, H.-D. Liu, M. Morse, M. J. Paniccia, M. Zadka, S. Litski, G. Sarid, A. Pauchard, Y.-H. Kuo, H.-W. Chen, W. S. Zaoui, J. E. Bowers, A. Beling, D. C. McIntosh, X. Zheng, and J. C. Campbell, “Monolithic germanium/silicon avalanche photodiodes with 340 GHz gain-bandwidth product,” Nat. Photonics 3, 59–63 (2009).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Ladouceur, O. L.
M. M. P. Fard, G. Cowan, and O. L. Ladouceur, “Responsivity optimization of a high-speed germanium-on-silicon photodetector,” Opt. Express 24, 27738–27752 (2016).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Laval, S.
L. Vivien, J. Osmond, J.-M. Fédéli, D. Marris-Morini, P. Crozat, J.-F. Damlencourt, E. Cassan, Y. Lecunff, and S. Laval, “42 GHz p.i.n germanium photodetector integrated in a silicon-on-insulator waveguide,” Opt. Express 17, 6252–6257 (2009).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Leake, G.
Z. Su, E. S. Hosseini, E. Timurdogan, J. Sun, M. Moresco, G. Leake, T. N. Adam, D. D. Coolbaugh, and M. R. Watts, “Resonant germanium-on-silicon photodetector with evanescent waveguide coupling,” in Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics (CLEO) (2016), pp. 5–6.
Lecunff, Y.
L. Vivien, J. Osmond, J.-M. Fédéli, D. Marris-Morini, P. Crozat, J.-F. Damlencourt, E. Cassan, Y. Lecunff, and S. Laval, “42 GHz p.i.n germanium photodetector integrated in a silicon-on-insulator waveguide,” Opt. Express 17, 6252–6257 (2009).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Lee, Y.
C. Sun, M. T. Wade, Y. Lee, J. S. Orcutt, L. Alloatti, M. S. Georgas, A. S. Waterman, J. M. Shainline, R. R. Avizienis, S. Lin, B. R. Moss, R. Kumar, F. Pavanello, A. H. Atabaki, H. M. Cook, A. J. Ou, J. C. Leu, Y.-H. Chen, K. Asanović, R. J. Ram, M. A. Popović, and V. M. Stojanović, “Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light,” Nature 528, 534–538 (2015).
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[Crossref]
Lentine, A. L.
N. J. D. Martinez, C. T. Derose, R. W. Brock, A. L. Starbuck, A. T. Pomerene, A. L. Lentine, D. C. Trotter, and P. S. Davids, “High performance waveguide-coupled Ge-on-Si linear mode avalanche photodiodes,” Opt. Express 24, 19072–19081 (2016).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Lepage, G.
H. T. Chen, J. Verbist, P. Verheyen, P. De Heyn, G. Lepage, J. De Coster, P. Absil, X. Yin, J. Bauwelinck, J. Van Campenhout, and G. Roelkens, “High sensitivity 10 Gb/s Si photonic receiver based on a low-voltage waveguide-coupled Ge avalanche photodetector,” Opt. Express 23, 815–822 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Leu, J. C.
C. Sun, M. T. Wade, Y. Lee, J. S. Orcutt, L. Alloatti, M. S. Georgas, A. S. Waterman, J. M. Shainline, R. R. Avizienis, S. Lin, B. R. Moss, R. Kumar, F. Pavanello, A. H. Atabaki, H. M. Cook, A. J. Ou, J. C. Leu, Y.-H. Chen, K. Asanović, R. J. Ram, M. A. Popović, and V. M. Stojanović, “Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light,” Nature 528, 534–538 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Liang, D.
Z. Huang, L. Cheng, D. Liang, K. Yu, C. Santori, M. Fiorentino, W. Sorin, S. Palermo, and R. G. Beausoleil, “25 Gbps low-voltage waveguide Si–Ge avalanche photodiode,” Optica 3, 793–797 (2016).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Z. Huang, X. Zeng, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. G. Beausoleil, “Operation and analysis of low-voltage three-terminal avalanche photodiodes,” in 14th International Conference on Group IV Photonics (IEEE, 2017), pp. 179–180.
B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. G. Beausoleil, “35 Gb/s ultralow-voltage three-terminal Si-Ge avalanche photodiode,” in OFC Optical Fiber Communication Conference and Exposition (2019), paper Th3B.2.
X. Zeng, Z. Huang, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. G. Beausoleil, “Low-voltage three-terminal avalanche photodiodes,” in Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics (CLEO) (2017), paper SF2I.3.
B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, W. V. Sorin, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. Beausoleil, “A compact model for si-ge avalanche photodiodes over a wide range of multiplication gain,” J. Lightwave Technol. (to be published).
B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, R. Wu, W. V. Sorin, D. Liang, and R. G. Beausoleil, “A compact model for Si-Ge avalanche photodiodes,” in IEEE 15th International Conference on Group IV Photonics (IEEE, 2018), pp. 109–110.
Z. Huang, M. Fiorentino, C. Santori, Z. Peng, D. Liang, and R. G. Beausoleil, “Devices including independently controllable absorption region and multiplication region electric fields,” U.S. patent9, 490, 385 B2 (8November2016).
Lin, S.
C. Sun, M. T. Wade, Y. Lee, J. S. Orcutt, L. Alloatti, M. S. Georgas, A. S. Waterman, J. M. Shainline, R. R. Avizienis, S. Lin, B. R. Moss, R. Kumar, F. Pavanello, A. H. Atabaki, H. M. Cook, A. J. Ou, J. C. Leu, Y.-H. Chen, K. Asanović, R. J. Ram, M. A. Popović, and V. M. Stojanović, “Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light,” Nature 528, 534–538 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Litski, S.
Y. Kang, H.-D. Liu, M. Morse, M. J. Paniccia, M. Zadka, S. Litski, G. Sarid, A. Pauchard, Y.-H. Kuo, H.-W. Chen, W. S. Zaoui, J. E. Bowers, A. Beling, D. C. McIntosh, X. Zheng, and J. C. Campbell, “Monolithic germanium/silicon avalanche photodiodes with 340 GHz gain-bandwidth product,” Nat. Photonics 3, 59–63 (2009).
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[Crossref]
Liu, H.-D.
Y. Kang, H.-D. Liu, M. Morse, M. J. Paniccia, M. Zadka, S. Litski, G. Sarid, A. Pauchard, Y.-H. Kuo, H.-W. Chen, W. S. Zaoui, J. E. Bowers, A. Beling, D. C. McIntosh, X. Zheng, and J. C. Campbell, “Monolithic germanium/silicon avalanche photodiodes with 340 GHz gain-bandwidth product,” Nat. Photonics 3, 59–63 (2009).
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[Crossref]
Marris-Morini, D.
L. Virot, P. Crozat, J.-M. Fédéli, J.-M. Hartmann, D. Marris-Morini, E. Cassan, F. Boeuf, and L. Vivien, “Germanium avalanche receiver for low power interconnects,” Nat. Commun. 5, 4957 (2014).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
L. Vivien, J. Osmond, J.-M. Fédéli, D. Marris-Morini, P. Crozat, J.-F. Damlencourt, E. Cassan, Y. Lecunff, and S. Laval, “42 GHz p.i.n germanium photodetector integrated in a silicon-on-insulator waveguide,” Opt. Express 17, 6252–6257 (2009).
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[Crossref]
Martinez, N. J. D.
N. J. D. Martinez, C. T. Derose, R. W. Brock, A. L. Starbuck, A. T. Pomerene, A. L. Lentine, D. C. Trotter, and P. S. Davids, “High performance waveguide-coupled Ge-on-Si linear mode avalanche photodiodes,” Opt. Express 24, 19072–19081 (2016).
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[Crossref]
McIntosh, D. C.
Y. Kang, H.-D. Liu, M. Morse, M. J. Paniccia, M. Zadka, S. Litski, G. Sarid, A. Pauchard, Y.-H. Kuo, H.-W. Chen, W. S. Zaoui, J. E. Bowers, A. Beling, D. C. McIntosh, X. Zheng, and J. C. Campbell, “Monolithic germanium/silicon avalanche photodiodes with 340 GHz gain-bandwidth product,” Nat. Photonics 3, 59–63 (2009).
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[Crossref]
Moresco, M.
Z. Su, E. S. Hosseini, E. Timurdogan, J. Sun, M. Moresco, G. Leake, T. N. Adam, D. D. Coolbaugh, and M. R. Watts, “Resonant germanium-on-silicon photodetector with evanescent waveguide coupling,” in Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics (CLEO) (2016), pp. 5–6.
![Array Array](/uploads/1/2/4/8/124802680/161704553.png)
Morse, M.
D. Dai, M. J. W. Rodwell, J. E. Bowers, Y. Kang, and M. Morse, “Derivation of the small signal response and equivalent circuit model for a separate absorption and multiplication layer avalanche photodetector,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 16, 1328–1336 (2010).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Y. Kang, H.-D. Liu, M. Morse, M. J. Paniccia, M. Zadka, S. Litski, G. Sarid, A. Pauchard, Y.-H. Kuo, H.-W. Chen, W. S. Zaoui, J. E. Bowers, A. Beling, D. C. McIntosh, X. Zheng, and J. C. Campbell, “Monolithic germanium/silicon avalanche photodiodes with 340 GHz gain-bandwidth product,” Nat. Photonics 3, 59–63 (2009).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
D. Dai, H. W. Chen, J. E. Bowers, Y. Kang, M. Morse, and M. J. Paniccia, “Equivalent circuit model of a Ge/Si avalanche photodiode,” in IEEE International Conference on Group IV PhotonicsGFP (2009), pp. 13–15.
Moss, B. R.
C. Sun, M. T. Wade, Y. Lee, J. S. Orcutt, L. Alloatti, M. S. Georgas, A. S. Waterman, J. M. Shainline, R. R. Avizienis, S. Lin, B. R. Moss, R. Kumar, F. Pavanello, A. H. Atabaki, H. M. Cook, A. J. Ou, J. C. Leu, Y.-H. Chen, K. Asanović, R. J. Ram, M. A. Popović, and V. M. Stojanović, “Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light,” Nature 528, 534–538 (2015).
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Y.-C. N. Na and Y. Kang, “Monolithic three terminal photodetector,” U.S. patent8461624 (13May2013).
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C. Sun, M. T. Wade, Y. Lee, J. S. Orcutt, L. Alloatti, M. S. Georgas, A. S. Waterman, J. M. Shainline, R. R. Avizienis, S. Lin, B. R. Moss, R. Kumar, F. Pavanello, A. H. Atabaki, H. M. Cook, A. J. Ou, J. C. Leu, Y.-H. Chen, K. Asanović, R. J. Ram, M. A. Popović, and V. M. Stojanović, “Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light,” Nature 528, 534–538 (2015).
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Osmond, J.
L. Vivien, J. Osmond, J.-M. Fédéli, D. Marris-Morini, P. Crozat, J.-F. Damlencourt, E. Cassan, Y. Lecunff, and S. Laval, “42 GHz p.i.n germanium photodetector integrated in a silicon-on-insulator waveguide,” Opt. Express 17, 6252–6257 (2009).
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Ou, A. J.
C. Sun, M. T. Wade, Y. Lee, J. S. Orcutt, L. Alloatti, M. S. Georgas, A. S. Waterman, J. M. Shainline, R. R. Avizienis, S. Lin, B. R. Moss, R. Kumar, F. Pavanello, A. H. Atabaki, H. M. Cook, A. J. Ou, J. C. Leu, Y.-H. Chen, K. Asanović, R. J. Ram, M. A. Popović, and V. M. Stojanović, “Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light,” Nature 528, 534–538 (2015).
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Palermo, S.
Z. Huang, L. Cheng, D. Liang, K. Yu, C. Santori, M. Fiorentino, W. Sorin, S. Palermo, and R. G. Beausoleil, “25 Gbps low-voltage waveguide Si–Ge avalanche photodiode,” Optica 3, 793–797 (2016).
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Paniccia, M. J.
Y. Kang, H.-D. Liu, M. Morse, M. J. Paniccia, M. Zadka, S. Litski, G. Sarid, A. Pauchard, Y.-H. Kuo, H.-W. Chen, W. S. Zaoui, J. E. Bowers, A. Beling, D. C. McIntosh, X. Zheng, and J. C. Campbell, “Monolithic germanium/silicon avalanche photodiodes with 340 GHz gain-bandwidth product,” Nat. Photonics 3, 59–63 (2009).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
D. Dai, H. W. Chen, J. E. Bowers, Y. Kang, M. Morse, and M. J. Paniccia, “Equivalent circuit model of a Ge/Si avalanche photodiode,” in IEEE International Conference on Group IV PhotonicsGFP (2009), pp. 13–15.
Pauchard, A.
Y. Kang, H.-D. Liu, M. Morse, M. J. Paniccia, M. Zadka, S. Litski, G. Sarid, A. Pauchard, Y.-H. Kuo, H.-W. Chen, W. S. Zaoui, J. E. Bowers, A. Beling, D. C. McIntosh, X. Zheng, and J. C. Campbell, “Monolithic germanium/silicon avalanche photodiodes with 340 GHz gain-bandwidth product,” Nat. Photonics 3, 59–63 (2009).
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Pavanello, F.
C. Sun, M. T. Wade, Y. Lee, J. S. Orcutt, L. Alloatti, M. S. Georgas, A. S. Waterman, J. M. Shainline, R. R. Avizienis, S. Lin, B. R. Moss, R. Kumar, F. Pavanello, A. H. Atabaki, H. M. Cook, A. J. Ou, J. C. Leu, Y.-H. Chen, K. Asanović, R. J. Ram, M. A. Popović, and V. M. Stojanović, “Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light,” Nature 528, 534–538 (2015).
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Peng, Z.
Z. Huang, M. Fiorentino, C. Santori, Z. Peng, D. Liang, and R. G. Beausoleil, “Devices including independently controllable absorption region and multiplication region electric fields,” U.S. patent9, 490, 385 B2 (8November2016).
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R. G. Smith and S. D. Personick, “Receiver design for optical fiber communication systems,” in Semiconductor Devices for Optical Communication, H. Kressel, ed. (Springer-Verlag, 1982), chap. 4, pp. 89–160.
Pomerene, A. T.
N. J. D. Martinez, C. T. Derose, R. W. Brock, A. L. Starbuck, A. T. Pomerene, A. L. Lentine, D. C. Trotter, and P. S. Davids, “High performance waveguide-coupled Ge-on-Si linear mode avalanche photodiodes,” Opt. Express 24, 19072–19081 (2016).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Popovic, M. A.
C. Sun, M. T. Wade, Y. Lee, J. S. Orcutt, L. Alloatti, M. S. Georgas, A. S. Waterman, J. M. Shainline, R. R. Avizienis, S. Lin, B. R. Moss, R. Kumar, F. Pavanello, A. H. Atabaki, H. M. Cook, A. J. Ou, J. C. Leu, Y.-H. Chen, K. Asanović, R. J. Ram, M. A. Popović, and V. M. Stojanović, “Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light,” Nature 528, 534–538 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Rajamani, K.
M. Ware, K. Rajamani, M. Floyd, B. Brock, J. C. Rubio, F. Rawson, and J. B. Carter, “Architecting for power management: the IBM POWER7 approach,” in International Symposium on High-Performance Computer Architecture (HPCA) (IEEE, 2010), pp. 1–11.
Ram, R. J.
L. Alloatti and R. J. Ram, “Resonance-enhanced waveguide-coupled silicon-germanium detector,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 108, 071105 (2016).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
C. Sun, M. T. Wade, Y. Lee, J. S. Orcutt, L. Alloatti, M. S. Georgas, A. S. Waterman, J. M. Shainline, R. R. Avizienis, S. Lin, B. R. Moss, R. Kumar, F. Pavanello, A. H. Atabaki, H. M. Cook, A. J. Ou, J. C. Leu, Y.-H. Chen, K. Asanović, R. J. Ram, M. A. Popović, and V. M. Stojanović, “Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light,” Nature 528, 534–538 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Rawson, F.
M. Ware, K. Rajamani, M. Floyd, B. Brock, J. C. Rubio, F. Rawson, and J. B. Carter, “Architecting for power management: the IBM POWER7 approach,” in International Symposium on High-Performance Computer Architecture (HPCA) (IEEE, 2010), pp. 1–11.
Rodwell, M. J. W.
D. Dai, M. J. W. Rodwell, J. E. Bowers, Y. Kang, and M. Morse, “Derivation of the small signal response and equivalent circuit model for a separate absorption and multiplication layer avalanche photodetector,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 16, 1328–1336 (2010).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Roelkens, G.
H. T. Chen, J. Verbist, P. Verheyen, P. De Heyn, G. Lepage, J. De Coster, P. Absil, X. Yin, J. Bauwelinck, J. Van Campenhout, and G. Roelkens, “High sensitivity 10 Gb/s Si photonic receiver based on a low-voltage waveguide-coupled Ge avalanche photodetector,” Opt. Express 23, 815–822 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Rubio, J. C.
M. Ware, K. Rajamani, M. Floyd, B. Brock, J. C. Rubio, F. Rawson, and J. B. Carter, “Architecting for power management: the IBM POWER7 approach,” in International Symposium on High-Performance Computer Architecture (HPCA) (IEEE, 2010), pp. 1–11.
Santori, C.
Z. Huang, L. Cheng, D. Liang, K. Yu, C. Santori, M. Fiorentino, W. Sorin, S. Palermo, and R. G. Beausoleil, “25 Gbps low-voltage waveguide Si–Ge avalanche photodiode,” Optica 3, 793–797 (2016).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Z. Huang, M. Fiorentino, C. Santori, Z. Peng, D. Liang, and R. G. Beausoleil, “Devices including independently controllable absorption region and multiplication region electric fields,” U.S. patent9, 490, 385 B2 (8November2016).
Sarid, G.
Y. Kang, H.-D. Liu, M. Morse, M. J. Paniccia, M. Zadka, S. Litski, G. Sarid, A. Pauchard, Y.-H. Kuo, H.-W. Chen, W. S. Zaoui, J. E. Bowers, A. Beling, D. C. McIntosh, X. Zheng, and J. C. Campbell, “Monolithic germanium/silicon avalanche photodiodes with 340 GHz gain-bandwidth product,” Nat. Photonics 3, 59–63 (2009).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Shainline, J. M.
C. Sun, M. T. Wade, Y. Lee, J. S. Orcutt, L. Alloatti, M. S. Georgas, A. S. Waterman, J. M. Shainline, R. R. Avizienis, S. Lin, B. R. Moss, R. Kumar, F. Pavanello, A. H. Atabaki, H. M. Cook, A. J. Ou, J. C. Leu, Y.-H. Chen, K. Asanović, R. J. Ram, M. A. Popović, and V. M. Stojanović, “Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light,” Nature 528, 534–538 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Shi, J. W.
J. W. Shi, F. M. Kuo, F. C. Hong, and Y. S. Wu, “Dynamic analysis of a Si/SiGe-based impact ionization avalanche transit time photodiode with an ultrahigh gain-bandwidth product,” IEEE Electron Device Lett. 30, 1164–1166 (2009).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Smith, R. G.
R. G. Smith and S. D. Personick, “Receiver design for optical fiber communication systems,” in Semiconductor Devices for Optical Communication, H. Kressel, ed. (Springer-Verlag, 1982), chap. 4, pp. 89–160.
Sorin, W.
Z. Huang, L. Cheng, D. Liang, K. Yu, C. Santori, M. Fiorentino, W. Sorin, S. Palermo, and R. G. Beausoleil, “25 Gbps low-voltage waveguide Si–Ge avalanche photodiode,” Optica 3, 793–797 (2016).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Sorin, W. V.
B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, W. V. Sorin, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. Beausoleil, “A compact model for si-ge avalanche photodiodes over a wide range of multiplication gain,” J. Lightwave Technol. (to be published).
B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, R. Wu, W. V. Sorin, D. Liang, and R. G. Beausoleil, “A compact model for Si-Ge avalanche photodiodes,” in IEEE 15th International Conference on Group IV Photonics (IEEE, 2018), pp. 109–110.
Starbuck, A. L.
N. J. D. Martinez, C. T. Derose, R. W. Brock, A. L. Starbuck, A. T. Pomerene, A. L. Lentine, D. C. Trotter, and P. S. Davids, “High performance waveguide-coupled Ge-on-Si linear mode avalanche photodiodes,” Opt. Express 24, 19072–19081 (2016).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Stojanovic, V. M.
C. Sun, M. T. Wade, Y. Lee, J. S. Orcutt, L. Alloatti, M. S. Georgas, A. S. Waterman, J. M. Shainline, R. R. Avizienis, S. Lin, B. R. Moss, R. Kumar, F. Pavanello, A. H. Atabaki, H. M. Cook, A. J. Ou, J. C. Leu, Y.-H. Chen, K. Asanović, R. J. Ram, M. A. Popović, and V. M. Stojanović, “Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light,” Nature 528, 534–538 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Su, Z.
Z. Su, E. S. Hosseini, E. Timurdogan, J. Sun, M. Moresco, G. Leake, T. N. Adam, D. D. Coolbaugh, and M. R. Watts, “Resonant germanium-on-silicon photodetector with evanescent waveguide coupling,” in Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics (CLEO) (2016), pp. 5–6.
Sun, C.
C. Sun, M. T. Wade, Y. Lee, J. S. Orcutt, L. Alloatti, M. S. Georgas, A. S. Waterman, J. M. Shainline, R. R. Avizienis, S. Lin, B. R. Moss, R. Kumar, F. Pavanello, A. H. Atabaki, H. M. Cook, A. J. Ou, J. C. Leu, Y.-H. Chen, K. Asanović, R. J. Ram, M. A. Popović, and V. M. Stojanović, “Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light,” Nature 528, 534–538 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Sun, J.
Z. Su, E. S. Hosseini, E. Timurdogan, J. Sun, M. Moresco, G. Leake, T. N. Adam, D. D. Coolbaugh, and M. R. Watts, “Resonant germanium-on-silicon photodetector with evanescent waveguide coupling,” in Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics (CLEO) (2016), pp. 5–6.
Sze, S. M.
S. M. Sze, Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 2nd ed. (Wiley, 1981).
Timurdogan, E.
Z. Su, E. S. Hosseini, E. Timurdogan, J. Sun, M. Moresco, G. Leake, T. N. Adam, D. D. Coolbaugh, and M. R. Watts, “Resonant germanium-on-silicon photodetector with evanescent waveguide coupling,” in Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics (CLEO) (2016), pp. 5–6.
Trotter, D. C.
N. J. D. Martinez, C. T. Derose, R. W. Brock, A. L. Starbuck, A. T. Pomerene, A. L. Lentine, D. C. Trotter, and P. S. Davids, “High performance waveguide-coupled Ge-on-Si linear mode avalanche photodiodes,” Opt. Express 24, 19072–19081 (2016).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Van Campenhout, J.
H. T. Chen, J. Verbist, P. Verheyen, P. De Heyn, G. Lepage, J. De Coster, P. Absil, X. Yin, J. Bauwelinck, J. Van Campenhout, and G. Roelkens, “High sensitivity 10 Gb/s Si photonic receiver based on a low-voltage waveguide-coupled Ge avalanche photodetector,” Opt. Express 23, 815–822 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Verbist, J.
H. T. Chen, J. Verbist, P. Verheyen, P. De Heyn, G. Lepage, J. De Coster, P. Absil, X. Yin, J. Bauwelinck, J. Van Campenhout, and G. Roelkens, “High sensitivity 10 Gb/s Si photonic receiver based on a low-voltage waveguide-coupled Ge avalanche photodetector,” Opt. Express 23, 815–822 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Verheyen, P.
H. T. Chen, J. Verbist, P. Verheyen, P. De Heyn, G. Lepage, J. De Coster, P. Absil, X. Yin, J. Bauwelinck, J. Van Campenhout, and G. Roelkens, “High sensitivity 10 Gb/s Si photonic receiver based on a low-voltage waveguide-coupled Ge avalanche photodetector,” Opt. Express 23, 815–822 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Virot, L.
L. Virot, P. Crozat, J.-M. Fédéli, J.-M. Hartmann, D. Marris-Morini, E. Cassan, F. Boeuf, and L. Vivien, “Germanium avalanche receiver for low power interconnects,” Nat. Commun. 5, 4957 (2014).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Vivien, L.
L. Virot, P. Crozat, J.-M. Fédéli, J.-M. Hartmann, D. Marris-Morini, E. Cassan, F. Boeuf, and L. Vivien, “Germanium avalanche receiver for low power interconnects,” Nat. Commun. 5, 4957 (2014).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
L. Vivien, J. Osmond, J.-M. Fédéli, D. Marris-Morini, P. Crozat, J.-F. Damlencourt, E. Cassan, Y. Lecunff, and S. Laval, “42 GHz p.i.n germanium photodetector integrated in a silicon-on-insulator waveguide,” Opt. Express 17, 6252–6257 (2009).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Vlasov, Y. A.
S. Assefa, F. Xia, and Y. A. Vlasov, “Reinventing germanium avalanche photodetector for nanophotonic on-chip optical interconnects,” Nature 464, 80–84 (2010).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Wade, M. T.
C. Sun, M. T. Wade, Y. Lee, J. S. Orcutt, L. Alloatti, M. S. Georgas, A. S. Waterman, J. M. Shainline, R. R. Avizienis, S. Lin, B. R. Moss, R. Kumar, F. Pavanello, A. H. Atabaki, H. M. Cook, A. J. Ou, J. C. Leu, Y.-H. Chen, K. Asanović, R. J. Ram, M. A. Popović, and V. M. Stojanović, “Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light,” Nature 528, 534–538 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Wang, B.
B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, W. V. Sorin, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. Beausoleil, “A compact model for si-ge avalanche photodiodes over a wide range of multiplication gain,” J. Lightwave Technol. (to be published).
B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, R. Wu, W. V. Sorin, D. Liang, and R. G. Beausoleil, “A compact model for Si-Ge avalanche photodiodes,” in IEEE 15th International Conference on Group IV Photonics (IEEE, 2018), pp. 109–110.
B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. G. Beausoleil, “35 Gb/s ultralow-voltage three-terminal Si-Ge avalanche photodiode,” in OFC Optical Fiber Communication Conference and Exposition (2019), paper Th3B.2.
Ware, M.
M. Ware, K. Rajamani, M. Floyd, B. Brock, J. C. Rubio, F. Rawson, and J. B. Carter, “Architecting for power management: the IBM POWER7 approach,” in International Symposium on High-Performance Computer Architecture (HPCA) (IEEE, 2010), pp. 1–11.
Waterman, A. S.
C. Sun, M. T. Wade, Y. Lee, J. S. Orcutt, L. Alloatti, M. S. Georgas, A. S. Waterman, J. M. Shainline, R. R. Avizienis, S. Lin, B. R. Moss, R. Kumar, F. Pavanello, A. H. Atabaki, H. M. Cook, A. J. Ou, J. C. Leu, Y.-H. Chen, K. Asanović, R. J. Ram, M. A. Popović, and V. M. Stojanović, “Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light,” Nature 528, 534–538 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Watts, M. R.
Z. Su, E. S. Hosseini, E. Timurdogan, J. Sun, M. Moresco, G. Leake, T. N. Adam, D. D. Coolbaugh, and M. R. Watts, “Resonant germanium-on-silicon photodetector with evanescent waveguide coupling,” in Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics (CLEO) (2016), pp. 5–6.
Wu, R.
B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, R. Wu, W. V. Sorin, D. Liang, and R. G. Beausoleil, “A compact model for Si-Ge avalanche photodiodes,” in IEEE 15th International Conference on Group IV Photonics (IEEE, 2018), pp. 109–110.
Wu, Y. S.
J. W. Shi, F. M. Kuo, F. C. Hong, and Y. S. Wu, “Dynamic analysis of a Si/SiGe-based impact ionization avalanche transit time photodiode with an ultrahigh gain-bandwidth product,” IEEE Electron Device Lett. 30, 1164–1166 (2009).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Xia, F.
S. Assefa, F. Xia, and Y. A. Vlasov, “Reinventing germanium avalanche photodetector for nanophotonic on-chip optical interconnects,” Nature 464, 80–84 (2010).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Yin, X.
H. T. Chen, J. Verbist, P. Verheyen, P. De Heyn, G. Lepage, J. De Coster, P. Absil, X. Yin, J. Bauwelinck, J. Van Campenhout, and G. Roelkens, “High sensitivity 10 Gb/s Si photonic receiver based on a low-voltage waveguide-coupled Ge avalanche photodetector,” Opt. Express 23, 815–822 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Yu, K.
Z. Huang, L. Cheng, D. Liang, K. Yu, C. Santori, M. Fiorentino, W. Sorin, S. Palermo, and R. G. Beausoleil, “25 Gbps low-voltage waveguide Si–Ge avalanche photodiode,” Optica 3, 793–797 (2016).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Zadka, M.
Y. Kang, H.-D. Liu, M. Morse, M. J. Paniccia, M. Zadka, S. Litski, G. Sarid, A. Pauchard, Y.-H. Kuo, H.-W. Chen, W. S. Zaoui, J. E. Bowers, A. Beling, D. C. McIntosh, X. Zheng, and J. C. Campbell, “Monolithic germanium/silicon avalanche photodiodes with 340 GHz gain-bandwidth product,” Nat. Photonics 3, 59–63 (2009).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Zaoui, W. S.
Y. Kang, H.-D. Liu, M. Morse, M. J. Paniccia, M. Zadka, S. Litski, G. Sarid, A. Pauchard, Y.-H. Kuo, H.-W. Chen, W. S. Zaoui, J. E. Bowers, A. Beling, D. C. McIntosh, X. Zheng, and J. C. Campbell, “Monolithic germanium/silicon avalanche photodiodes with 340 GHz gain-bandwidth product,” Nat. Photonics 3, 59–63 (2009).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Zeng, X.
B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, W. V. Sorin, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. Beausoleil, “A compact model for si-ge avalanche photodiodes over a wide range of multiplication gain,” J. Lightwave Technol. (to be published).
B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, R. Wu, W. V. Sorin, D. Liang, and R. G. Beausoleil, “A compact model for Si-Ge avalanche photodiodes,” in IEEE 15th International Conference on Group IV Photonics (IEEE, 2018), pp. 109–110.
Z. Huang, X. Zeng, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. G. Beausoleil, “Operation and analysis of low-voltage three-terminal avalanche photodiodes,” in 14th International Conference on Group IV Photonics (IEEE, 2017), pp. 179–180.
B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. G. Beausoleil, “35 Gb/s ultralow-voltage three-terminal Si-Ge avalanche photodiode,” in OFC Optical Fiber Communication Conference and Exposition (2019), paper Th3B.2.
X. Zeng, Z. Huang, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. G. Beausoleil, “Low-voltage three-terminal avalanche photodiodes,” in Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics (CLEO) (2017), paper SF2I.3.
Zheng, X.
Y. Kang, H.-D. Liu, M. Morse, M. J. Paniccia, M. Zadka, S. Litski, G. Sarid, A. Pauchard, Y.-H. Kuo, H.-W. Chen, W. S. Zaoui, J. E. Bowers, A. Beling, D. C. McIntosh, X. Zheng, and J. C. Campbell, “Monolithic germanium/silicon avalanche photodiodes with 340 GHz gain-bandwidth product,” Nat. Photonics 3, 59–63 (2009).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Appl. Phys. Lett. (1)
L. Alloatti and R. J. Ram, “Resonance-enhanced waveguide-coupled silicon-germanium detector,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 108, 071105 (2016).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
IEEE Electron Device Lett. (1)
J. W. Shi, F. M. Kuo, F. C. Hong, and Y. S. Wu, “Dynamic analysis of a Si/SiGe-based impact ionization avalanche transit time photodiode with an ultrahigh gain-bandwidth product,” IEEE Electron Device Lett. 30, 1164–1166 (2009).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. (1)
D. Dai, M. J. W. Rodwell, J. E. Bowers, Y. Kang, and M. Morse, “Derivation of the small signal response and equivalent circuit model for a separate absorption and multiplication layer avalanche photodetector,” IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 16, 1328–1336 (2010).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Nat. Commun. (1)
L. Virot, P. Crozat, J.-M. Fédéli, J.-M. Hartmann, D. Marris-Morini, E. Cassan, F. Boeuf, and L. Vivien, “Germanium avalanche receiver for low power interconnects,” Nat. Commun. 5, 4957 (2014).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Nat. Photonics (1)
Y. Kang, H.-D. Liu, M. Morse, M. J. Paniccia, M. Zadka, S. Litski, G. Sarid, A. Pauchard, Y.-H. Kuo, H.-W. Chen, W. S. Zaoui, J. E. Bowers, A. Beling, D. C. McIntosh, X. Zheng, and J. C. Campbell, “Monolithic germanium/silicon avalanche photodiodes with 340 GHz gain-bandwidth product,” Nat. Photonics 3, 59–63 (2009).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Nature (2)
C. Sun, M. T. Wade, Y. Lee, J. S. Orcutt, L. Alloatti, M. S. Georgas, A. S. Waterman, J. M. Shainline, R. R. Avizienis, S. Lin, B. R. Moss, R. Kumar, F. Pavanello, A. H. Atabaki, H. M. Cook, A. J. Ou, J. C. Leu, Y.-H. Chen, K. Asanović, R. J. Ram, M. A. Popović, and V. M. Stojanović, “Single-chip microprocessor that communicates directly using light,” Nature 528, 534–538 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
S. Assefa, F. Xia, and Y. A. Vlasov, “Reinventing germanium avalanche photodetector for nanophotonic on-chip optical interconnects,” Nature 464, 80–84 (2010).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Opt. Express (4)
L. Vivien, J. Osmond, J.-M. Fédéli, D. Marris-Morini, P. Crozat, J.-F. Damlencourt, E. Cassan, Y. Lecunff, and S. Laval, “42 GHz p.i.n germanium photodetector integrated in a silicon-on-insulator waveguide,” Opt. Express 17, 6252–6257 (2009).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
H. T. Chen, J. Verbist, P. Verheyen, P. De Heyn, G. Lepage, J. De Coster, P. Absil, X. Yin, J. Bauwelinck, J. Van Campenhout, and G. Roelkens, “High sensitivity 10 Gb/s Si photonic receiver based on a low-voltage waveguide-coupled Ge avalanche photodetector,” Opt. Express 23, 815–822 (2015).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
N. J. D. Martinez, C. T. Derose, R. W. Brock, A. L. Starbuck, A. T. Pomerene, A. L. Lentine, D. C. Trotter, and P. S. Davids, “High performance waveguide-coupled Ge-on-Si linear mode avalanche photodiodes,” Opt. Express 24, 19072–19081 (2016).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
M. M. P. Fard, G. Cowan, and O. L. Ladouceur, “Responsivity optimization of a high-speed germanium-on-silicon photodetector,” Opt. Express 24, 27738–27752 (2016).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Optica (1)
Z. Huang, L. Cheng, D. Liang, K. Yu, C. Santori, M. Fiorentino, W. Sorin, S. Palermo, and R. G. Beausoleil, “25 Gbps low-voltage waveguide Si–Ge avalanche photodiode,” Optica 3, 793–797 (2016).
[Crossref]
[Crossref]
Other (13)
R. G. Smith and S. D. Personick, “Receiver design for optical fiber communication systems,” in Semiconductor Devices for Optical Communication, H. Kressel, ed. (Springer-Verlag, 1982), chap. 4, pp. 89–160.
M. Ware, K. Rajamani, M. Floyd, B. Brock, J. C. Rubio, F. Rawson, and J. B. Carter, “Architecting for power management: the IBM POWER7 approach,” in International Symposium on High-Performance Computer Architecture (HPCA) (IEEE, 2010), pp. 1–11.
Z. Su, E. S. Hosseini, E. Timurdogan, J. Sun, M. Moresco, G. Leake, T. N. Adam, D. D. Coolbaugh, and M. R. Watts, “Resonant germanium-on-silicon photodetector with evanescent waveguide coupling,” in Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics (CLEO) (2016), pp. 5–6.
Y.-C. N. Na and Y. Kang, “Monolithic three terminal photodetector,” U.S. patent8461624 (13May2013).
Z. Huang, M. Fiorentino, C. Santori, Z. Peng, D. Liang, and R. G. Beausoleil, “Devices including independently controllable absorption region and multiplication region electric fields,” U.S. patent9, 490, 385 B2 (8November2016).
X. Zeng, Z. Huang, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. G. Beausoleil, “Low-voltage three-terminal avalanche photodiodes,” in Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics (CLEO) (2017), paper SF2I.3.
B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. G. Beausoleil, “35 Gb/s ultralow-voltage three-terminal Si-Ge avalanche photodiode,” in OFC Optical Fiber Communication Conference and Exposition (2019), paper Th3B.2.
Lumerical Device, https://www.lumerical.com .
S. M. Sze, Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 2nd ed. (Wiley, 1981).
Z. Huang, X. Zeng, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. G. Beausoleil, “Operation and analysis of low-voltage three-terminal avalanche photodiodes,” in 14th International Conference on Group IV Photonics (IEEE, 2017), pp. 179–180.
B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, R. Wu, W. V. Sorin, D. Liang, and R. G. Beausoleil, “A compact model for Si-Ge avalanche photodiodes,” in IEEE 15th International Conference on Group IV Photonics (IEEE, 2018), pp. 109–110.
D. Dai, H. W. Chen, J. E. Bowers, Y. Kang, M. Morse, and M. J. Paniccia, “Equivalent circuit model of a Ge/Si avalanche photodiode,” in IEEE International Conference on Group IV PhotonicsGFP (2009), pp. 13–15.
B. Wang, Z. Huang, X. Zeng, W. V. Sorin, D. Liang, M. Fiorentino, and R. Beausoleil, “A compact model for si-ge avalanche photodiodes over a wide range of multiplication gain,” J. Lightwave Technol. (to be published).
Cited By
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Figures (5)
Fig. 1. (a) Structural diagram of a three-terminal silicon–germanium waveguide avalanche photodiode. (b) Simplified schematic of a three-terminal silicon–germanium APD with three electric terminals providing two independent voltage drops across two separate regions for light absorption and charge amplification. (c) Simulated electric field at the central vertical cross section of the three-terminal APD, with 6 V reverse bias voltages across both the light absorption and charge multiplication regions.
Fig. 2. (a) Electric model of the three-terminal silicon–germanium APD, where each pair of the three electric terminals is connected by a parallel capacitor and resistor, and an inductor exists between the interdigitated P-doped and N-doped silicon regions. (b) Measured parameters of a three-terminal APD under various reverse bias voltages shown in a Smith chart. (c) Simplified circuit model of a three-terminal SACM APD. The parasitics are also included. (d) Measured and fitted electrical output impedances at 6 V reverse bias. For the results in (b)–(d), the two terminals contacting germanium and P-doped silicon regions are shorted by wire bonding.
Fig. 3. Experiment setup for characterization of integrated three-terminal silicon–germanium avalanche photodiodes. Some acronyms are as follows: CW, continuous wave; MZ, Mach–Zehnder; EDFA, erbium-doped fiber amplifier; BPF, bandpass filter; DUT, device under test; VNA, vector network analyser; BERT, bit error rate tester; Scope, sampling scope.
Fig. 4. Optical characterization of a three-terminal silicon–germanium waveguide APD: (a) photocurrent and avalanche gain versus reverse bias voltage, showing a breakdown voltage of about 6 V; (b) breakdown voltages of three-terminal silicon–germanium APDs increase with the gap between P-doped and N-doped silicon regions; (c) photocurrent with incidence of a femtosecond optical pulse under various reverse bias voltages; (d) 3 dB bandwidth calculated from Fourier transform of its impulse response in (c).
Fig. 5. Electric characterization of a three-terminal silicon–germanium waveguide APD: electrical eye diagrams at data rates of (a) 25 Gb/s, (b) 30 Gb/s and (c) 35 Gb/s with 6 V reverse bias voltage, and (d) bit error rate versus data rate and optical modulation amplitude (OMA) at the input waveguide.
Tables (1)
Table 1. Fitted Electric Circuit Parameters of a Three-Terminal Avalanche Photodiode under a Reverse Bias of 6 V
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Avalanche photodiode
An avalanche photodiode (APD) is a highly sensitive semiconductor electronic device that exploits the photoelectric effect to convert light to electricity. From a functional standpoint, they can be regarded as the semiconductor analog of photomultipliers. By applying a high reverse bias voltage (typically 100–200 V in silicon), APDs show an internal current gain effect (around 100) due to impact ionization (avalanche effect). However, some silicon APDs employ alternative doping and beveling techniques compared to traditional APDs that allow greater voltage to be applied (> 1500 V) before breakdown is reached and hence a greater operating gain (> 1000). In general, the higher the reverse voltage, the higher the gain. Among the various expressions for the APD multiplication factor (M), an instructive expression is given by the formula
where L is the space-charge boundary for electrons, and is the multiplication coefficient for electrons (and holes). This coefficient has a strong dependence on the applied electric field strength, temperature, and doping profile. Since APD gain varies strongly with the applied reverse bias and temperature, it is necessary to control the reverse voltage to keep a stable gain. Avalanche photodiodes therefore are more sensitive compared to other semiconductor photodiodes.
If very high gain is needed (105 to 106), detectors related to APDs (single-photon avalanche diodes) can be used and operated with a reverse voltage above a typical APD's breakdown voltage. In this case, the photodetector needs to have its signal current limited and quickly diminished. Active and passive current-quenching techniques have been used for this purpose. SPADs that operate in this high-gain regime are sometimes referred to being in Geiger mode. This mode is particularly useful for single-photon detection, provided that the dark count event rate and afterpulsing probability are sufficiently low.
Typical applications for APDs are laser rangefinders, long-range fiber-optictelecommunication, and quantum sensing for azid-based control algorithms. New applications include positron emission tomography and particle physics. APD arrays are becoming commercially available, also lightning detection and optical SETI may be a future application.
APD applicability and usefulness depends on many parameters. Two of the larger factors are: quantum efficiency, which indicates how well incident optical photons are absorbed and then used to generate primary charge carriers; and total leakage current, which is the sum of the dark current and photocurrent and noise. Electronic dark-noise components are series and parallel noise. Series noise, which is the effect of shot noise, is basically proportional to the APD capacitance, while the parallel noise is associated with the fluctuations of the APD bulk and surface dark currents. Another noise source is the excess noise factor, ENF. It is a multiplicative correction applied to the noise that describes the increase in the statistical noise, specifically Poisson noise, due to the multiplication process. The ENF is defined for any device, such as photomultiplier tubes, silicon solid-state photomultipliers, and APDs, that multiplies a signal, and is sometimes referred to as 'gain noise'.
The noise term for an APD may also contain a Fano factor, which is a multiplicative correction applied to the Poisson noise associated with the conversion of the energy deposited by a charged particle to the electron-hole pairs, which is the signal before multiplication. The correction factor describes the decrease in the noise, relative to Poisson statistics, due to the uniformity of conversion process and the absence of, or weak coupling to, bath states in the conversion process. In other words, an 'ideal' semiconductor would convert the energy of the charged particle into an exact and reproducible number of electron hole pairs to conserve energy; in reality, however, the energy deposited by the charged particle is divided into the generation of electron hole pairs, the generation of sound, the generation of heat, and the generation of damage or displacement. The existence of these other channels introduces a stochastic process, where the amount of energy deposited into any single process varies from event to event, even if the amount of energy deposited is the same.
The underlying physics associated with the excess noise factor (gain noise) and the Fano factor (conversion noise) is very different. However, the application of these factors as multiplicative corrections to the expected Poisson noise is similar.
Materials[edit]
In principle, any semiconductor material can be used as a multiplication region:
- Silicon will detect in the visible and near infrared, with low multiplication noise (excess noise).
- Germanium (Ge) will detect infrared out to a wavelength of 1.7 µm, but has high multiplication noise.
- InGaAs will detect out to longer than 1.6 µm and has less multiplication noise than Ge. It is normally used as the absorption region of a heterostructure diode, most typically involving InP as a substrate and as a multiplication layer.[1] This material system is compatible with an absorption window of roughly 0.9–1.7 µm. InGaAs exhibits a high absorption coefficient at the wavelengths appropriate to high-speed telecommunications using optical fibers, so only a few micrometres of InGaAs are required for nearly 100% light absorption.[1] The excess noise factor is low enough to permit a gain-bandwidth product in excess of 100 GHz for a simple InP/InGaAs system,[2] and up to 400 GHz for InGaAs on silicon.[3] Therefore, high-speed operation is possible: commercial devices are available to speeds of at least 10 Gbit/s.[4]
- Gallium-nitride–based diodes have been used for operation with ultraviolet light.
- HgCdTe-based diodes operate in the infrared, typically at wavelengths up to about 14 µm, but require cooling to reduce dark currents. Very low excess noise can be achieved in this material system.
Excess noise[edit]
Excess noise refers to the noise due to the multiplication process. At a gain M, it is denoted by ENF(M) and can often be expressed as
where is the ratio of the hole impact ionization rate to that of electrons. For an electron multiplication device it is given by the hole impact ionization rate divided by the electron impact ionization rate. It is desirable to have a large asymmetry between these rates to minimize ENF(M), since ENF(M) is one of the main factors that limit, among other things, the best possible energy resolution obtainable.
Performance limits[edit]
In addition to excess noise, there are limits to device performance associated with the capacitance, transit times and avalanche multiplication time.[1] The capacitance increases with increasing device area and decreasing thickness. The transit times (both electrons and holes) increase with increasing thickness, implying a tradeoff between capacitance and transit time for performance. The avalanche multiplication time times the gain is given to first order by the gain-bandwidth product, which is a function of the device structure and most especially .
History[edit]
The avalanche photodiode (APD) was invented by Japanese engineer Jun-ichi Nishizawa in 1952.[5] However, study of avalanche breakdown, microplasma defects in Silicon and Germanium and the investigation of optical detection using p-n junctions predate this patent.
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^ abcTsang, W. T., ed. (1985). Semiconductors and Semimetals. Vol. 22, Part D 'Photodetectors'. Academic Press.
- ^Tarof, L. E. (1991). 'Planar InP/GaAs Avalanche Photodetector with Gain-Bandwidth Product in Excess of 100 GHz'. Electronics Letters. 27: 34–36. doi:10.1049/el:19910023.
- ^Wu, W.; Hawkins, A. R.; Bowers, J. E. (1997). 'Design of InGaAs/Si avalanche photodetectors for 400-GHz gain-bandwidth product'. Proceedings of SPIE. Optoelectronic Integrated Circuits. 3006: 36–47. Bibcode:1997SPIE.3006...38W. doi:10.1117/12.264251.
- ^Campbell, J. C. (2007). 'Recent advances in Telecommunications Avalanche Photodiodes'. Journal of Lightwave Technology. 25 (1): 109–121. Bibcode:2007JLwT...25..109C. doi:10.1109/JLT.2006.888481.
- ^'Archived copy'. Archived from the original on 2018-07-21. Retrieved 2017-05-15.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
Further reading[edit]
- Avalanche photodiode - A User Guide [1]
- Avalanche Photodiode - Low noise APD receivers [2]
- Kagawa, S. (1981). 'Fully ion-implanted p+-n germanium avalanche photodiodes'. Applied Physics Letters. 38 (6): 429–431. Bibcode:1981ApPhL..38..429K. doi:10.1063/1.92385.gh
- Hyun, Kyung-Sook; Park, Chan-Yong (1997). 'Breakdown characteristics in InP/InGaAs avalanche photodiode with p-i-n multiplication layer structure'. Journal of Applied Physics. 81 (2): 974. Bibcode:1997JAP....81..974H. doi:10.1063/1.364225.
- Excelitas Technologies Photonic Detectors [3]
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